Flora Of Ramgarh Crater, Baran District, Rajasthan with Ethnobotanical Notes and Highlight on Related Issues

Dr. Satish Kumar Sharma

Assistant Conservator of Forests (Retd.)

14-15, Chakri Amba, Rampura Circle, Udaipur, Rajasthan

Anurag Bhatnagar

Dy. Conservator of Forests,

Wildlife Division, Kota, Rajasthan

Praveen Singh

Field Biologist,

Tiger Watch, Sawai Madhopur, Rajasthan

Dr. Dharmendra Khandal

Conservation Biologist

Tiger Watch, Sawai Madhopur, Rajasthan

Ramgarh crater is a prominent meteorite impact crater, located on the Vindhyan Plateau near Ramgarh village in Baran District, southeastern Rajasthan. Geologically significant, the crater spans a forested region, now managed under the jurisdiction of the Kishanganj Forest Range, Baran Forest Division. Earlier, this area was managed as a territorial forest but now has been declared as a Conservation Reserve by the Government of Rajasthan through notification F/4(12)/Forest/2017, dated March 3, 2023. The details of forest blocks and area is given below in the Table 1.

Table 1: Area details of Ramgarh Conservation Reserve.

S. No.	Forest Block	Forest Land Category	Area (ha)
1	Ramgarh	Protected Forest	1440.50
2	Kunji Suwans	Protected Forest	2368.34
	Total		3808.84

The area is important from history, culture, archeology, geology and forestry point of view. Historically, apex predators such as the tiger (Panthera tigris) and leopard (Panthera pardus) were once reported in the region, though they are now locally extinct.

Figure 1: View of the Dhonk (Anogeissus pendula) forest on eastern inner hill slope and Butea monosperma dominated forest in foothills (photo taken from ruins of the Bhand Deora).

The present-day mammalian fauna includes the Northern Plains Langur (Semnopithecus entellus), Indian Wild Pig (Sus scrofa), Jungle Cat (Felis chaus), Common Palm Civet (Paradoxurus hermaphroditus), Small Indian Civet (Viverricula indica), Grey Mongoose (Herpestes edwardsii), Ruddy Mongoose (H. smithii), Striped Hyena (Hyaena hyaena), Golden Jackal (Canis aureus aureus), Indian Hare (Lepus nigricollis), Indian Crested Porcupine (Hystrix indica), House Shrew (Suncus murinus), Five-striped Squirrel (Funambulus pennantii), Indian Gerbil (Tatera indica), and Indian Monitor Lizard (Varanus bengalensis). The area also supports a rich assemblage of avifauna, reptiles, butterflies, and moths.

Figure 2: A juvenile Bengal Monitor Lizard (Varanus bengalensis) (photographed at the eastern bank of Pushkar Talab on July 15, 2025).

Ramgarh Crater is equally notable for its architectural and spiritual heritage. Noteworthy sites include the Ramgarh Fort, Bhand Deora temple complex, Harchand Ji Ki Chhatri, Annapurna and Krishnai Mata Ji Temples, Kachkaran Ki Baori, Brahm Chetan Kund, and Ramgarh Mata Temple. Several water bodies, such as Nola, Pushkar Talab (Pokhar), Bada Talab (Ramgarh Talab), and Mala Ki Talai, dot the crater landscape. According to oral histories, rulers of Kota State once frequented Mala Ki Talai for royal hunting expeditions (Dr. Madhusudan Vaishnaw, pers. comm., June 20, 2024).

Figure 3: View of Pushkar Talab as seen from the vantage point behind the ruins of the Bhand Deora Temple.

Significantly, Pushkar Talab within the Ramgarh Crater has been designated as one of the 44 ‘Notified Wetlands’ by the Government of Rajasthan, highlighting its ecological importance and hydrological value within the regional landscape.

The broader Hadoti region is relatively well-documented for its prehistoric rock art and unique geological specialties (Abbas, 2021; Nagar et al., 2017; Pandey et al., 2024). However, the Ramgarh Crater, despite its ecological and cultural significance, has received limited focused scientific attention (Aswathi et al., 2012). Floristic studies covering the broader Hadoti zone are available (Sharma, 2002), and a comprehensive overview of the vegetation across Kota, Bundi, Jhalawar, and Baran districts is provided in “The Flora of Rajasthan” (Sharma, 2022). However, a dedicated botanical inventory specifically focused on the Ramgarh Crater remains absent.

Figure 4: Ruins of the Bhand Deora Shiva Temple. The upper section shows the remains of the sanctum (Garbhagriha); the bottom left displays the outer wall of the sanctum, while the bottom right depicts scattered architectural remnants lying behind the Garbhagriha.

To address this gap, extensive floristic surveys were conducted between 2023 and July 2025. These investigations aimed to document the floral diversity of the crater across different seasons and provide foundational data for future ecological and conservation assessments.

Table 2: Dicot flora of Ramgarh crater

S.N.	Family	Latin name of plant	H*	Location	Status	Remark
1	Annonaceae	Annona squamosa	S	Near eastern bank of Pushkar Talab	Less common	Growing in patches
2	Monispermaceae	Cissampelos pareira	TS	Growing among bushes	Relatively common
		Tinospora cordifolia	CS	Climbing on Prosopis juliflora	Relatively common	Hanging assimilatory roots are visible here and there
		Cocculus hirsutus	SS	Growing among bushes	Relatively common
3	Nymphoeaceae	Nymphoea nauchali	H	Bada talab and Puskar Talab	Common
4	Nelumbonaceae	Nelumbo nucifera	H	Bada Talab	Common	Growing towards shore area
5	Papaveraceae	Argemone mexicana	H	Downstream of Bada Talab	Common
6	Capparaceae	Capparis decidua	S/ST	Dotted everywhere in open well drained pockets	Common
		C. sepiaria	SS	Dotted everywhere	Common
		Crateva odansonii	T	Foot hills	Rare
7	Flacourtiaceae	Flacourtia indica	S/ST	Dotted	Less common
8	Malvaceae	Abutilon indicum	US	Dotted	Less common
		Hibiscus caesius	H	Dotted among bushes	Relatively common	Become visible after monsoon season when it flowers
		H. micranthus	S	Dotted	Less common
9	Sterculiaceae	Sterculia urens	T	Upper reaches of the hills	Rare
10	Tiliaceae	Corchorus aestuans	H	Near Bada Talab	Less common
		C. capsularis	H	Near Bada Talab	Less common
		C tridens	H	Near Bada Talab	Less common
		Grewia flavescens	S	Growing below the Anogeissus pendula crop	Less common
		G. tenax	S	A bush of stony area	Less common
11	Oxalidaceae	Oxalis corniculate	H	Edges of both the water bodies	Abundant
12	Rutaceae	Aegle marmelos	T	Seen in valley area	Less common
13	Simaroubaceae	Ailanthus excelsa	T	On the way to Ramgarh Mata temple	Rare	Visible from distance owing to large sized leaves
14	Balanitaceae	Balanites aegyptiaca	T	Soil erosion prone compact areas	Common	A species which suckers profusely
15	Burseraceae	Boswellia serrata	T	Upper reaches	Less common
16	Meliaceae	Azadirachta indica	T	Growing among bushes near Goshala	Less common
		Melia azedarach	T	Near Goshala	Rare
17	Rhamnaceae	Ziziphus glabrata	T	Dotted	Less common
		Z. mauritiana	T	Dotted	Less common
		Z. nummularia	S	Dotted along the road	Less common
		Z. xylophyrus		Dotted on hill slopes	Less common
18	Vitaceae	Cayratia carnosa	C	Climbing straight on the thick-stemmed trees like Madhuca indica	Common	A rainy season plant. Starts appearing before onset of monsoon. It perennates through its beaded or moniliform roots
19	Sapindaceae	Cardiospermum helicacabum	C	Among bushes	Common	A rainy season plant
20	Anacardiaceae	Lannea coromadelica	T	Present from upper reaches to foothills.	Common	Also seen growing on ancient buildings of temples and fort.
		Mangifera indica	T	Eastern edge of Pushkar Talab and near Goshala	Grow in groves
21	Moringaceae	Moringa oleifera	T	Dotted	Less common
22	Fabaceae	Abrus precatorius	TH	Among bushes	Common
		Alysicarpus vaginalis	H	Growing as ground flora	Common
		Butea monosperma	T	Foot hills	Abundant	Growing as 5/E₅^– Butea Forest in the area.
		Clitoria ternatea	TH	Growing among the bushes near spillover of Bada Talab	Less common
		Crotalaria medicagenia	H	Open areas	Common	A rainy season plant
		Desmodinm triflorum	H	Creeping here and there on the ground floor	Common
		Galactia tenuiflora	TH	Among bushes near Bhand Deora and eastern bank of Pushkar Talab	Relatively common
		Indigofera linifolia	H	Quite visible during monsoon and post monsoon period	Common
		I. linnaei	H	Quite visible during monsoon and post monsoon period	Common
		Mucuna prurita	TH	Visible during monsoon and post monsoon period	Common
		Rhynchosia minima	TH	Among bushes	Common
		Tephrosia villosa	US	During rainy season becomes visible in open areas	Less common
		T. purpurea	H	During rainy season becomes visible in open areas	Less common
23	Caesalpiniaceae	Bauhinia racemosa	T	On the way to Ramgarh Mata temple and near eastern bank of Pushkar Talabs	Rare
		Cassia fistula	T	Near eastern bank of Pushkar Talabs	Rare
		Cassia pumila	H	Open areas	Less common
		Cassia sophera / Senna sophera	S	Near eastern Ghat of Pushkar Talab. Growing under the shade of Madhuca indica	Less common	Grow in patches
		Cassia tora/ Senna tora	H	Grow in open area	Common
		C. uniflora/ Senna uniflora	H	Open area	Common	This species is spreading at fasti pace
		Tamarindus indica	T	Near eastern edge of Pushkar talab	Rare
24	Mimosaceae	Acacia catechu	T	Hill slopes	Common
		A. leucophloea	T	Hill slopes (where degradation is prevailing) and foot hills. Visible along the sides of whole road net work	Common
		A. nilotica indica	T	Foothills and road side ditches	Less common
		Dichrostachys cinerea	S	Foothills and lower slopes	Less common
		Mimosa himalayna	S	Road sides	Less common
		Prosopis juliflora	T	Whole valley and foot hills are badly affected	Abundant
25	Combretaceae	Anogeissus pendula / Terminalia pendula	T	A dominant species luxuriantly growing on hill slopes and foot-hills.	Abundant	Making 5/E₁and 5/E/DS₁ forest types on hill slopes and stoney foot hills
26	Myrtaceae	Syzygium cumini	T	Near Goshala	Rare
27	Onagraceae	Ludwigia adscendens	H	Bada Talab	Less common
28	Trapaceae	Trapa natans	H	Pushkar and Bada Talab waters	Common
29	Cucurbitaceae	Cucumis melo var. agrestis	C	On the walls of Bhand Deora	Less common	Rainy season plant
		Diplocyclos palmatus	H	Among bushes	Common during rainy season	Rainy season plant
		Luffa acutangula	C	Among bushes	Less common	Rainy season plant
		L. echinata	C	Among bushes	Common	Rainy season plant
		Momordica charantia	C	Among bushes	Common	Rainy season plant
		M. dioica	C	Among bushes	Less common	A dioicous plant of rainy season. Start appearing before on set of monsoons through the underground tubers
		Trichosanthes cucumeriana	C	Among bushes	Abundant	Rainy season plant
30	Cactaceae	Opuntia elatior	S	On the way to Bhand Deora	Less common	Havily naturalize in many pockets of Baran district
31	Aizoaceae	Trianthema portulacastrum	H	Quite visible during rainy season in open areas	Common
32	Rubiaceae	Borreria articularis	H	Visible during rainy season on forest floor	Common
		B. pusila	H	Visible during rainy season on forest floor	Less common
		Mitraguna parvifolia	T	Hill slopes and foot hills	Less common
33	Asteraceae	Ageratum conyzoides	H	Bordering area of Pushkar Talab and Bada Talab	Common
		A haustonianum	H	Bordering area of Pushkar Talab and Bada Talab	Less common
		Bidens biternata	H	Open areas and old buildings	Common
		Caesulia axillaris	H	Bordering Bada Talab	Less common
		Echinops eclinatus	H	Near Bhand Deora and at many places along the road	Less common
		Eclipta prostorey	H	Bordering Bada Talab	Less common
		Parthenium hysterophorus	H	Occupying open places	Abundant
		Tridax procumbens	H	Open areas and road side	Abundant
		Vernonia cineria	H	Open areas	Less common
		Xanthium strumarium	H	Road sides	Common
34	Sapotaceae	Madhuca indica	T	Present near the eastern shore of Pushkar Talab	Growing singly and in groves
		Manilkara hexandra	T	Few trees dotted in the area	Rare
35	Ebenaceae	Diospyros cordifolia	T	Dotted in foot hills	Less common
		D. melanoxylon	T	Doted in foot hills & lower hill slopes	Less common
36	Apocynaceae	Carissa spinarum	S	Near Bhand Deora	Rare
		Catharanthus pasillus	H	Grow in open areas during rainy season	Common
		Wrightia tinctoria	T	Hill slopes	Rare
37	Asclepiadacace	Calotropis procera	S	Open area along the road	Less common
		Oxystelma secamone	TH	Downstream of Bada Talab	Less common
		Pergularia daemia	TU	Among bushes	Less common
		Wattakaka volubilis	TS	Dotted	Rare	Climbing on trees
38	Priplocaceae	Cryptostegia grandiflora	SS	Down stream of the Bada Talab	Rare
		Hemidesmus indicus	SU	Dotted here and there on the forest floor	Rare
39	Ehretiaceae	Cordia dichotoma	T	Near eastern edge of Pushkar Talab	Less common
		Ehretia laevis	T	Dotted	Less common
40	Convolvulaceae	Evolvulus alsinoides	H	Open areas	Less common
		E. nummularius	H	Bordering both water bodies	common
		Ipomoea carnea ssp. fistulosa	S	Eastern shore of Bada Talab	Common
		I. dichora	TH	Dotted among the bushes during rainy season	Common
		I. nil	TH	Can be seen among the bushes during rainy season	Common
		I. obscura	TH	Grow among bushes during rainy season	Common
		I. pes-tigridis	TH	Grow among bushes during rainy season	Common
		Merramia emarginata	H	Bordering shore zone of both the water bodies	Common
		Rivea hypoaraterifornis	CH	Growing among the bushes	Less common
41	Cascutaceae	Cuscuta chinensis	H	A parasite on herbs and shrubs	Less common
		C. reflexa	H	Near Bhand Deora	Less common
42	Solanaceae	Datur innoxia	S	Near Bhand Deora	Less common
		D. stramonium	H	Near Bhand Deora	Rare
		Solanum xanthocarpum	H	Along the road leading to Ramgarh Mata temple	Less common
43	Scrophulariaceae	Bacopa monnieri	H	Edges of both the ponds	Common
		Lindenbergia muraria	H	Fort wall	Less common
		Verbascum chinense	H	Walls of Bhand deora	Less common
44	Bignoniaceae	Oroxylum indicum	T	Seen 2 trees and their many suckers in Shobhagpura village towards southern outskirts of the crater	Rare (?) (This species is included here on the authority of the local villagers)	Villagers were of opinion that the seeds were brought from crater area and sown in the agriculture field. Locally the species is called Muwasa
45	Pedaliaceae	Sesamum mulayanum	H	Can be seen during rains in open areas	Common
46	Martyniaceae	Martynia annua	H	Grow in patches in open area	Less common	Being grazing hardy plan remain undamaged and all the fruits drop below the mother plant after maturation. All fallen seeds germinate during next rain making a clump
47	Acanthaceae	Aahatoda zeylanica	S	Making extensive thickets in foothill zone	Abundant	A grazing hardy species occupying most of foot hill area
		Barleria prionits	US	Seen along the road sides	Less common
		Elytraria aculis	H	Common under Capparis sepiaria and Anogeissus pendula	Very common
		Indoneesiella echioides	H	Seen on the walls of Bhand devra	Less Common	Grow on the walls as ruderal species. Also grow in rocky areas. Remains visible only during monsoon season
		Justicia procumbens	H	Quite visible during rains	Common
		Peristrophe paniculata	H	Quite visible during rains	Abundant
48	Verbenaceae	Lantana camara	S	Invasive in the foot hill zone	Common
		Phyla nodiflora	H	Banks of both the water bodies	Less common
49	Lamiaceae	Leucos aspera	H	Open area during rainy season	Less common
50	Nyctaginaceae	Boerhavia diffusa	H	Open grassy patches	Common
51	Amaranthaceae	Achyranthes aspera	H	Affected whole foothills. Also growing as ruderal species	Abundant
		Digera muricata	H	Grassy patches during rains	Less common
		Pupalia lappacea	H	Grow among bushes during rains	Less common
52	Chenopodiaceae	Chenopodium murale	H	Grow in moist areas during winter	Less common
53	Polygonaceae	Polygonum glabrum	H	Wet edges of both the ponds	Less common
		P. plebeium	H	Drying edges of both the ponds	Less common
		Rumex dentatus	H	Grow in moist areas during the winter	Common
54	Euphorbiaceae	Baliospermum montanum	H	Below the Mahuwa and mango trees	Less common
		Chrozophora rottleri	H	Drying bed of the ponds	Less common
		Euphorbia hirta	H	Dotted	Common
		E. heyneana	H	Dotted	Common
		Jatropha gossypifolia	S	near Goshala	Less common
		Kirganelia reticulata	SS	Moist-shady places at periphery of both the ponds	Less common
		Phyllanthus fraternus	H	seen grown on Bhand Deora during rains	Less common
		Ricinus communis	ST	Seen near eastern shore of Puskar Talab	Rare
		Securinega leucopyrus	S	Foot hills	Less common
55	Ulmaceae	Holoptelea integrifolia	T	Dotted	Less common
56	Moraceae	Ficus benghalensis	T	Eastern shore of Pushkar Talab. Seen growing as epiphyte also	Less common
		F. hispida	S	Growing in shady wet localities	less common
		F. racemosa	T	growing near eastern shore of Pushkar Talab	rare
		F. religiosa	T	Dotted. Seen growing as epiphyte also	less common
		F. virens	T	seen growing as epiphyte	rare

Table 3: Monocot flora of Ramgarh crater

S.no.	Family	Latin name of plant	H*	Location	Status	Remark
1	Hydrocharitaceae	Hydrilla verticillate	H	Pushkar Talab & Bada Talab	Common
2	Dioscoreaceae	Dioscorea bulbifera	TH	Dotted. Visible during rainy season.	Rare
3	Liliaceae	Asparagus racemosus	SU	Dotted among bushes	Common
3	Liliaceae	Urginea indica	H	Dotted in well drained areas	Less common
4	Commelianceae	Commehina benghalensis	H	Common during rainy season on the ground and buildings	Common
4	Commelianceae	C. forskalaei	H	Common during rainy season	Common
5	Arecaceae	Phoenix sylvestris	T	Eastern shore of Pushkar Talab	Less common
6	Lemnaceae	Lemna perpusilla	H	Pushar Talab & Bada Talab	Less common
		Spirodela poiyrhiza	H	Pushar Talab & Bada Talab	Common
		Wolffia microscopica	H	Pushar Talab & Bada Talab	Common
7	Potamogetonaceae	Potamogeton pectinatus	H	Pushar Talab & Bada Talab	Less common
8	Crperaceae	Cyperus triceps	H	Growing with grasses	Less common
8	Crperaceae	Fimbristylis falcata	H	Edges of both the ponds	Less common
9	Poaceae	Apluda mutica	H	Among bushes and below the trees	Abundant
		Aristida adscensionis	H	Open compact soil zone	Common
		Arthraxon lanceolatus	H	Under Mahuwa trees near eastern edge of Pushkar Talab	Less common
		A. lancifolius	H	Under Mahuwa trees near eastern edge of Pushkar Talab under Mahuwa trees	Less common
		Bothriochloa pertusa	H	Growing among bushes	Less common
		Brachiaria ramosa	H	Open areas	Common
		B. raptans	H	Open areas	Common
		Choris dolichostachya	H	On the walls of Bhand Deora and stony substratum below the Dhok trees	Rare
		C. virgata	H	Open areas and among bushes	Less common
		Chrysopogon fulvas	H	Stony-rocky terrain of hill slopes	Less common
		Cynodon dactylon	H	Moist open areas and banks of streams towards foothills	Abundant
		Dactylocteninum aegyptium	H	Open area	Abundant
		Dendrocalamus strictus	S	Upper reaches of southern inner slope	Less common	Growing making small patches (5/E9 Dry Bamboo brakes)
		Dicanthium annulatum	H	Growing among the bushes	Less common
		Echinachloa colona	H	Edges of both the water bodies	Less common
		Eragrostiella bifaria	H	Open stony patches	Less common
		E. japonica	H	Open stony patches	Less common
		Heteropogon contortus	H	Areas having better soil thickness	Less common
		Melanocenchris jacquemonti	H	Compact open area suffering from erosion	Less common
		Oplismenus burmannii	H	Shady places under Mahuwa and Mango groves	Common
		Oropetium thomaeum	H	Rocky areas covered by thin layer of the soil	Less common
		Oryza rufipogon	H	Ditches along the road leading to crater	Less common
		Pennisetum orientale	H	Among busses of foothills	Less common
		Phalaris minor	H	Wet patches	Less common	A winter season grass
		Sehima nervosum	H	Among the bushes	Less common
		Setaria verticillata	H	Shady places under Mahuwa and Mango groves	Less common
		Sporobolus diander	H	Compact open patches	Less common
		S. ioclados	H	Compact open patches	Less common
		Tetrapogon tenelus	H	Degraded compact patches	Less common
		Vetiveria zizanioides	H	Low lying areas	Less common

* Habit

Tree: T= Tree (Tall, medium sized), ST= Small tree/ Under tree

Shrub: S= Shrub, TS = Twining shrub, CS= Climbing shrub, SS= Scandent shrub/ Straggling shrub, TU= Twining undershrub, SU=Scandent undershrub, US= Undershrub,

Herb: H= Herb, TH= Twining herb, C= Climber

Figure 5: View of the Shiva temple as seen from the surrounding ruins at Ramgarh Crater.

Summary:

A total of 197 vascular plant species belonging to 65 families and 156 genera were documented during floristic surveys conducted between 2023 and July 2025. summary of the various taxa recorded during the present study is depicted below:

Table 4: Summary of Taxa

S. No.	Class	No. of Families	No. of Genera	No. of Species
1	Dicotyledons	56	119	154
2	Monocotyledons	9	37	43
	Total	65	156	197

Figure 6: Variations in Dhonk (Anogeissus pendula) forest growth forms observed at Ramgarh Crater.

Main Forest Types:

Many forest types are confined to Ramgarh crater. Tropical dry deciduous forests are prevailing in the area. The biggest forest type of the area is 5/E₁– Anogeissus forest which is present on inner and outer slopes of the crater ring. Due to heavy anthropogenic pressure, degradation is seen on the slopes, especially towards outer slopes and 5/E₁– forest has converted into 5/E/DS₁–Anogeissus scrub at places. The 5/E₅– Butea forests is present in the ‘bowl’ of the hilly ring. Once 5/E₉– Dry Bamboo brakes were prominent in the area but due to anthropogenic pressure, bamboo forest is under pressure. Still a beautiful patch of bamboo forest is present towards the upper reaches of inner face (northern aspect) in southern direction between Krishnayan Mata Ji and Brhamchaten Kund. This is not a pure patch of Dendrocalamius strictus but it is growing inter mixed with Anogeissus pendula (Terminalia pendula). Northern aspect remains more moist than southern aspect. Due to this moisture difference, northern aspect of southern part of the ring is supporting luxuriant bamboo growth.

Various storeyfication (stratification) patterns are observed across different forest types and localities within this region. The vertical structure of the forest near the eastern shore of Pushkar Talab, particularly near the Pucca Ghat area, is characterized by the following stratification pattern:

Table 5: Storeyfication in Butea dominated foothill forest.

Storey	Species composition
I- Top storey trees	Madhuca indica, Mengifera indica, Phoenix sylvestries, Butea monosperma, Tamarindus indica
II- Under storey trees	Diospyros cordifolia, Cassia fistula, Prosopis juliflora, Ehretia laevis, Flacourtia indica
IIa- Bamboo	Absent
III- Shrubs	Capparis sepiaria, Cassia sophera, Annona squamosa, Lantana camra, Dichrostachys cineria, Mimosa himalayana, Carissa spinarum, Adhatoda zeylanica, Kirganelia reticulata, Ficus hispida
IVa- Herbs	Sida acuta, Oxalis corniculate, Alysicarpus vaginalis, Desmodium triflorum, Cassia tora, C. uniflora, Tridax procumbens, Achyranthes aspera, Baliospermum montana,
IVb – Grasses	Apluda mutica, Arthraxon lanceolatus, A. lancifolius, Oplismenus burmannii, Seteria verticillate,
V – Climbers	Cocculus hirsutus, Cayratia carnosa, Cardiospermum helicacabum, Abrus precatorius, Galactia tenuiflora, Rhynchosia minima, Diplocyclos palmatus, Luffa acutangula, Dioscorea bulbifera

Density, species diversity, and vertical stratification are more pronounced in the lower zones, where deeper soils and better moisture availability create favourable conditions for vegetation growth, as indicated in Table 5. In contrast, the upper zones, characterized by shallower soils and limited moisture, exhibit comparatively lower species diversity and simpler forest structure. This pattern is particularly evident in the bamboo-dominated forest located in the upper hill slopes, as detailed in Table 6.

Table 6: Vegetation stratification in Bamboo forests on the upper hill reaches

Storey	Species composition
I & II Storey trees	Anogeissus pandula, Lannea coromandelica, Acacia catechu, Wrightia tinctoria, Ehretia laevis,
IIa- Bamboo	Dendrocalamus strictus
III- Shrubs	Grewia flavesens, Ziziphus xylopyrus, Securinega leucopirus,
IVa- Herbs	Hibiscus caesius, Elatraria acaulis, Indoneesiella echioides, Achyranthes aspera
IVb – Grasses	Apluda mutica, Chloris dolichostachya, Chrysopogon fulvus, Eragrostiella biferia, Heteropogon contortus
V – Climber	Asparagus racemohus

Ethnobotanical notes:

The Ramgarh Crater region historically supported a diverse range of non-timber forest products (NTFPs). Sahariya, the local tribals were more dependent on this resource for their livelihood. In earlier times, the Butea monosperma-dominated forests were a major source of foliage used to make biodegradable leaf plates (pattals) and bowls (daunas). With the advent of disposable plastic and paper alternatives, this traditional practice has significantly declined. Butea flowers were also collected seasonally for their cultural and medicinal significance.

Even today, Cassia tora seeds and tuberous roots of Asparagus racemosus are harvested during the post-monsoon season by Sahariyas and other local (landless) residents and sold in regional markets, particularly in Shyopur Mandi (Rajasthan-Madhya Pradesh border), where demand for NTFPs remains high.

Bamboo was an important natural product of forest which was harvested by Sahariyas to prepare various handicraft items, especially to make different types of baskets. People say, that during ancient time, thick bamboo growth was present in the foothill but now this forest has disappeared in a large chunk of land and area has been occupied by Prosopis juliflora. Local “Basseda” Community is well known in basketry activities. Before the ‘era of Liquified Petroleum Gas’, fuel wood for cooking was collected by local tribals and other community from the crater forests.

Once, this area was well known for its Acacia catechu forests. Khirwa community of Hathiyadeh and Karvary villages used to extract Katha (Cutch) from Khair trees and used to trade in Madhya Pradesh. This practice, once economically significant, is now extinct.

Another traditional use involved the harvesting of Adhatoda zeylanica stems and branches, which were dried and used under terracotta roof tiles (khaprel) in rural Kuccha homes. This practice unintentionally regulated the growth of this hardy shrub. As modern roofing materials have replaced clay tiles, unchecked growth of Adhatoda has been observed in many patches.

Oral histories also report that several ‘Panwadi’ (betel leaf cultivation units) were historically active near the ponds within the crater. However, betel leaf production has now ceased entirely.

Acknowledgements:

We thank Sh. R.K. Khairwa, IFS, Chief Conservator of Forests; Sh. Aporva Shrivastava, IFS, Dy. CF.; Sh. Anil Yadav, RFS, Dy. CF.; Sh. Deepak Kumar Gautam, Forest Range Officer and Sh. Deepak Sharma, Forest Range Officer for assistance and support during the course of study.

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